Once again this year,
Lloyd Johnson had organized a demonstration of traditional
blacksmithing techniques over a later April weekend at Upper Canada
Village in Morrisburg Ontario. This event typically draws about 30
observers, and one of the bonuses is that it's location to the far
east of Ontario means a number of blacksmiths from the Montreal
region of Quebec also attend. For the 2026 edition, the featured
demonstrator was Alex Hinman from Colonial Williamsburg,
Virginia. Colonial Willamsburg (CW) is the largest living history
site in the USA, which focuses strongly on the American Revolution of
1776. In this the background cultural set, objects, and interpretive
presentations are very clearly American Colonial. Alex is one of the
principle blacksmiths at the site's re-created Anderson Blacksmith
Shop, having come up through the apprenticeship program at CW. The
type of work most normally seen in the Anderson shop is production of
functional reproductions of more common domestic items as would have
been in that shop historically. Work involves coal fires with bellows
air, and extensive employing of sledge hammer strikers. The shop is
equipped with one forge most typically used for public demonstration
type work, with two other forges assigned to more exacting object
creation.
Please remember
that what follows are my own perceptions and (failing!) memory of
what I personally observed. There may very well be errors in these
descriptions! Many of the detailed expansions given here were aspects
Alex himself provided in discussions.
Alex's physical
demonstration centred on the production of three common garden tool
objects, well documented in historic catalogues and with physical
artifacts. These were a 'Plantation' Hoe, a socketed 5 tine Rake, and
a Line Reel.
Importantly, these
replicas were all forged from wrought iron, the effective
working of this material becoming one of the most significant part of
the demonstrations. An important observation for those not familiar
with antique wrought iron – it works over a wider range of
temperatures than normal with mild steel. Rather than the typical
'bright orange' effective for modern steel, iron needs to be started
hotter, often up to the welding temperature. This difference in
correct working temperatures means that the time required for the
heating cycle usually increased. It is not unusual for cracks to
develop along along the encased slag filaments, and the quality of
the material certainly varies piece by piece (and sometimes within
the same bar).
He would start his
demonstration with illustrating simple (?) nail making, this using
1/4 square mild steel. At CW this is actually the standard
demonstration object on the public presentation forge, normally
carried out by the newest apprentices. (Because of the massive
visitor load at CW, the conversation is provided by a second
interpreter.) Along with the importance of nail production to the
growing Colonies (especially after cutting links with England) Alex
pointed out that this was a good light weight task to warm up with
physically. This section would include a discussion of the details of
the nail making header he used, and various potential construction
methods for these tools. One significant detail is that the header
used has a slightly domed top. This feature makes it easier for
hammer blows to spread the metal towards the edges of the wide head.
The square hole on this tool was punched from the bottom upwards, so
the smallest diameter was at the top side in use. (This reversed
from the shape of much earlier historic heading tools I was familiar
with.) During this, in light of questions and further
explanations, Alex started to reveal a depth of research and wide
knowledge beyond the technical, into the implications of even
something as seemingly simple as nails in that Colonial American
context. An example he gave was that the standard for a trained, full
time, Colonial nail maker was converting 100 lbs of prepared nail rod
into 97 lbs of nails, an expectation of only 3% loss in the working.
In the first of his
main demonstrations, the Plantation Hoe, Alex would start from a
longer piece than required of 2 x 5/8 inch, about 8 inches in total
would be used. The first step here was notching and necking in back
from the end of the bar, the part that would eventually be formed
into the socket.
It was during that
work that Alex introduced us all to the 'Williamsburg method' of
calling a striker to task at hand. Two ringing taps on the horn was
the signal. Alex explained that the ringing sound carries though the
busy multi-forge Anderson workshop, despite the observing crowds.
Unlike most of us watching, working with strikers is standard there
(where many of us work alone, or employing powered hammers or
presses). Taking turns at various times as strikers were Josh Koss
(seen with Alex below), Megan Carter, and Piper Yorke. (The 'who's up
first' confusion was a source of amusement to those watching – but
themselves not bold enough to step up.)
The very rough steps
of forging this object were :
Once notched, the
end of the rectangular bar was drawn down (largely on the base of
the horn) into roughly 1 x 1 inch square by 4 inches long.
The part of this
portion of bar closest to the original notch was then spread at 90
degrees to the line of the source bar. This would form the eventual
eye of the hoe. As the material was thinned, it was pushed to one
side, so there was a straight line down from the wider source bar
towards the end.
The nub of
material remaining at the very end was then also flattened, but this
in the the same plane as the starting source bar. This would form
the tab that would be welded back on to what would be the underside
of the final hoe.
The tab was forge
welded in place.
Then the eye is
correctly contoured using a bick and suitable mandrils into a swage
block. The widest part of the conical eye is to the bottom side of
the hoe. (This allows a simple friction fit over a natural branch
handle, thus requiring minimal working of the wood used.)
At this point the
hoe is cut at the eventual blade end from the parent bar. (If my
drawing is correct?)
A V shape, wide
side roughly the same width as the eye, and point towards the blade
end, is fullered in. This will create the central re-enforcing rib.
Now using cross
peen strokes the blade section is thinned and spread in several
directions : backwards towards the eye to create the top corners,
sideways to create the width of the blade, forwards to thin towards
the cutting edge.
 |
| My own rough notes on the working methods |
The piece was roughly
finished by pulling the blade to the desired tapering thickness, then
using a flatter (again via a striker) to smooth that surface The hoe
was completed by drawing a short bevel for the working edge.
With a question about
use of a welded 'steeled' edge, the deeper topic of plain iron versus
steeled and hardened edges, and how that related to Colonial
economics, was discussed.
 |
| Completed (rough forged) hoe - Canadian nickle for scale |
The next demonstration
project was the production of a five tine and socketed rake. All the
elements were created from the same 1/4 x 3/4 inch stock bar. The
first part of this process was separately making the three teeth that
would be fitted into the main body bar (the last two of the five
would be drawn from the ends of the bar). It was as these teeth were
formed that Alex exhibited a level of control that was as certain as
it was subtle.
- Working off the end
of a longer piece of rectangular stock, the first step was to
shoulder in near the end of the bar. This was done by pinching the
bar between the back radius edge of the anvil and the cross pean,
rather than using a pinch shouldering tool. If you have done this
method, the matching of stokes with the cross peen needs to be exact
– which Alex performed cleanly and quickly each time.
- The nub at the end
of the bar was drawn out to a short square shaft, keeping the
original thickness of the bar. This would form the tendon for
eventual joining of the completed tooth to the bar.
- The shoulder was
then squared up by forcing the bar downwards into a punch plate
tool.
- A short section of
the bar was then cut off, after the length measured via a caliper.
(This would allow Alex to have all his starting pieces at the same
length for the remaining teeth.) It was pointed out that the cut
should be to roughly the same half way depth into the bar from both
sides. This collapses the wrought iron grain equally.
- The short piece was
then drawn to a point, again maintaining the starting thickness (so
collapsing the width only). This work was done primarily over the
base of the horn, again to speed the drawing process.
- The last step was to
gently curve the completed tooth.
The next teeth would
be formed the same way. Alex would check the distance of the
separating cut via the set caliper each time. As the next teeth were
formed, again the high level of control was illustrated, as each of
the next two teeth would be virtually identical to the first. The
only comparison I saw Alex make to the first was confirming the
curvatures matched as completed.
-
(As I remember?) The next step was to pull out the two ends of
the main bar into similarly sized and shaped teeth. These would point
upwards towards the same edge of the long bar on either end, again
formed to match the contours of the earlier teeth. At this stage
these are left in the same plane as the flat of the bar. The end
teeth are then measured against the others, and the length marked to
indicate where eventually these would be folded over.
-
One of the separate teeth would eventually be fixed to the centre of
the rake bar. The remaining two then will be placed half way between
centre and the later end tooth fold. The 1 / 4 point was marked, and
square holes punched at those positions. These would be drifted open
to match the size of the square tooth shank. One of the reasons to
drift open a smaller hole was to distort the iron grain around the
hole, rather than cutting the fibres. The swelling from this process
would be reduced by hammering down on the bar edge at the hole, with
the drift in place to prevent the hole from collapsing.
The next part of the
process was to create the separate conical socket for the rake
handle. The end of the same stock bar was both flattened and spread
(cross peen work) into a thin conical shape. It was during this
process that Alex would encounter a problem so familiar to anyone
working with wrought iron, fractures when working the end portion of
a bar especially with aggressive flattening. Often these fractures
make cracks with diagonal cross sections, so an attempt at welding
from one edge downwards just ends up making further splitting. An
excellent solution to this was demonstrated (see the illustration) :
intentionally
forcing the edges downwards, causing the splits to open up slightly
and the diagonal edges to slide over each other
generously fluxing
the splits, bringing to a welding heat
quickly welding
the overlapping splits flat, (hopefully) resealing these cracks
There was a wider
discussion from a question : “What would they have been using for
flux.” Alex pointed out that borax, used by modern blacksmiths, was
also available and widely used in Colonial America. This would have
been imported, through England, with the initial source being Turkey.
Mention was made of fine white silica sand, often seen in English
historical method. A 'backwoods' substitute also known was grinding
up the clay nests of mud dauber wasps (because of the very fine
particle size).
Once the desired
spread of material was created (as Alex pointed out: ' *3* times the
desired *interior* diameter, plus a bit for the overlap when welding
- pi is for math class.'), the triangle was peened down into the
grooves of the swage block. This form would be completed by again
forming into the swage block, now working against suitable pointed
drift. Alternatives to this were suggested, including using the front
step of the anvil. Alex explained that the Colonial anvils run
straight from the table on to the horn however.
At this point the
cone was cut from the stock bar, leaving a short nub that would
eventually become the welded joint to the rake bar.
The cone was
carefully brought to a welding heat, then quickly pushed over a
bic, and the two edges welded to close the shape.
once completed,
the nub at the apex of the cone was flattened, thinning towards the
edges all around.
Both the centre
of the rake and this formed tab were then brought to welding heat.
Again, a process taking some care given the differing thickness of
materials. Alex then quickly (and seemingly effortlessly) laid up
the two separate pieces for the initial weld. This initial tack
weld was repeated to ensure the edges were correctly sealed and
blended, then the socket slightly adjusted for square and ideal
handle angle
Next the two teeth on
the ends of the rake bar were bent down to 90 degrees. Each of the
three remaining teeth had their posts trimmed to ideal length, then
each was held in the post vice. Laying the rake bar over the post,
this end was peened down to secure the tooth. Some final adjustment
was made to ensure the individual teeth lined up and were square to
the bar, and the rake was complete. As finished, the rake was roughly
12 inches wide
It was during the
forging of the rake that Alex would point to the usefulness of his
'side clip' tongs. He pointed out (and would frequently show) how
this style was actually more versatile than the full box jaw type.
It was
during the creation of the socket that I noted another tool related
fixture seen in the Upper Canada shop. As mentioned, the curving of
the socket was done by forging down into a swage block. The shop is
equipped with a stand formed from a number of pieces of 4 x 4 lumber
strapped together. The timber is sized so that there is a lower slot
in the centre, this slot of a width and depth that allows the block
to be positioned vertically placing the scalloped edges at working
height. The side pieces stand up so the block can also be held
horizontally, with curved L shaped brackets on the corners securing
it in place.
The
last object demonstrated was a line reel, used in Colonial times to
lay out garden rows. The version made was only roughly like the
historic illustration below. The construction of the illustration is
riveted, where Alex would make the frame of two pieces forge welded
together. (I have to fully admit that
my description here is less precise, as with my own early packing up
and then leaving before completion Sunday, I missed chunks of this
demonstration. So the description here not
necessarily in the exact forming sequence)
The
version made consisted of two main pieces, a rectangular frame with
curved sides, mounted to a long central spike. The frame element was
formed from 2
lengths of 1/4 x 3/4 x 15" long, and the spike element 20 "
of 1/2" round, all again of wrought iron.
The
two basically identical L shaped frame pieces were created first :
-
The mid point of the flat bar was carefully marked.
-
A short tab was flattened on one end.
-
One of the sides, from the mid point, was flattened, to about double
the original width (so to half the thickness).
-
This portion would be given a curve in cross section, by peening into
the on hand swage block groove.
-
The exact centre of the remaining flat bar side was measured, then a
round hole was punched and drifted. Again the swelling of the bar was
straightened by leaving the tapered punch in place while hammering
down on the edges.
-
At the junction between the still straight side and the contoured
side, the bar was folded back on to itself and then this seam welded
for about an inch.
-
Next the contoured side was folded back into the desired L shape,
then slightly curved into a bit of a crescent (not flat sided as in
the illustration above).
This
process was duplicated for the second frame element Then the first
corner of the two L shapes forge welded to make a box like form –
still left unconnected at one corner.
The
next component to create is the central stake :
-
First one end of the round rod chosen is drawn out to a long tapered
square profile, to a sharp point.
-
Using experience to judge what was required for the rough finished
length required, the round rod is necked in slightly, once again by
careful pinching of the bar over the radius on the far side of the
anvil.
-
From this point, the bar is drawn down into an even round profile, to
a length slightly longer than the distance from top to bottom of the
frame. This was checked for easy fit into the two punched holes in
the frame.
-
Next a small rectangular piece of bar was prepared, roughly 1/4 thick
by about 1/2 inch wide, that will form an integral washer that
eventually the lower frame will sit against.
-
This was cut from the stock bar with slightly slanted cuts, one from
each of the two sides. ( / \ )
-
This piece was then curved via a groove in the swage block. The
prepared central spike element was laid over the resulting U shape,
at the place the shift in rod diameter had been formed, then crimped
down tightly against the rod. Alex explained the logic of the mirror
image diagonal slices, which would ride up over each other as the
'washer' element was welded into place – rather than butt up
against each other, creating gaps.
-
Welding this washer into place was the next step. Although you had
to be paying attention to see this, he started close to the place
the two angled ends overlapped, rotating as he welded, again into
the groove. Even with light and quick blows, the washer piece would
enlarge slightly, but this would just cause the angled ends to slide
over, finishing the weld without a gap.
I
would miss the final assembly of this object. Alex was discussing the
importance of ensuring the various parts of the forming had to be
checked for correct fit, shaping and measurement had to be checked
and modified if required before the final open corner was welded
together to complete the frame element. The very last step would be
peening over the very tip of the central rod to hold the two pieces
together – but at the same time ensuring free movement of the
rotating frame.
One
important addition to the demonstrations was the ability to examine a
number of artifact samples of all three objects. These were provided
by Alex and also drawn from the (infamous?) Lloyd Johnson Study
Collection. One of the aspects of aged wrought iron objects is that
weathering often exposes the grain lines. These can inform about the
forging processes used, especially things like welding folds and if
steeled edges were applied. Along with various samples of various
individual's current work, these samples were available for
inspection and discussion over evening conversations.
Films
referenced during demo
From Alex : “Good
evening gents, I know I referenced a lot of historic film in my demo
and just wanted to share some of the references.”
Albert Craven, blade
forger:
https://youtu.be/UeWH7xEOv_E
Forging surgeon's
scissors:
https://youtu.be/xL-VPhZKdeM
Czechoslovak Nailers:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nma4R8izg9o
Belgian nailers:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WNvWmQ_ldE
Patterson's spade
mill:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yu8BGHC7jeA
German file cutters:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JiE3eyMS4Z4
Iranian wire nipper
maker:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8LOl0zKcl5s
Pioneer
Axe:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qr4VTCwEfko
Swedish iron puddling
and rolling:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1RSTrGV0NM
Thanks to Lloyd
Johnson for providing the starting stock measurements, and suggesting
details on the aspects of working with antique wrought iron.
Alex Hinman provided
the reference images from late 1700's agricultural implement
catalogues. Other images and drawings by the author.
Darrell
Markewitz / the Wareham Forge
This
article remains copyrighted – please request specific permission
before re-printing.
see :
https://www.warehamforge.ca/copy.html
This article was created at the request of Lloyd Johnson. It was submitted for the Summer issue of the Ontario Blacksmith's Association quarterly publication The Iron Trillium (in good time), but never included.
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